Extract from:

Knut J. Olawsky, Problems of Dagbani orthography. Unpublished ms.. Düsseldorf, 1995/1996.

Table 1: Problems of Dagbani orthography - overview

1.  Vowels                                                                             

    1.1          Vowel elision                                                         

                 1.1.1          In compounds                                           
                                (nominal phrases)                                      

                                1.1.1.1             Noun + noun                        

                                                    1.1.1.1.1        Nouns ending in   
                                                                     long vowel        

                                                    1.1.1.1.2        Nouns ending in   
                                                                     vowel sequence    

                                                    1.1.1.1.3        Nouns ending in   
                                                                     nasal consonant   

                                                    1.1.1.1.4        Nouns with class  
                                                                     suffix            

                                1.1.1.2             Noun +                             
                                                    adjective                          

                                                    1.1.1.2.1        Adjectives        
                                                                     ending in long    
                                                                     vowel             

                                                    1.1.1.2.2        Adjectives        
                                                                     ending in vowel   
                                                                     sequence          

                                                    1.1.1.2.3        Adjectives        
                                                                     ending in nasal   
                                                                     consonant         

                                                    1.1.1.2.4        Adjectives with   
                                                                     class suffix      

                                1.1.1.3             Noun +                             
                                                    determiner                         

                                                    1.1.1.3.1        Article /maa/ or  
                                                                     /la/              

                                                    1.1.1.3.2        Demonstrative     
                                                                     /N/              

                 1.1.2          Before pronouns                                        

                 1.1.3          In nominalizations                                     

                 1.1.4          Imperatives                                            

                 1.1.5          Exceptions                                             

                                1.1.5.1             /hal/ and /kul/                    

                                1.1.5.2             Time indication                    
                                                    /kurgu/ + /a/                      

                                                                                       

    1.2          Long vowels                                                           

                 1.2.1          In numerals                                            

                 1.2.2          Imperfective form                                      
                                of certain verbs                                       

                 1.2.3          Perfective form of                                     
                                CVV-i verbs                                            

                 1.2.4          Insertion of /i/                                       
                                before /ee/                                            

                 1.2.5          In plural forms of                                     
                                certain nouns                                          

                 1.2.6          Long vowel to                                          
                                avoid ambiguities                                      

                                                                                       

    1.3          Vowel change                                                          

                 1.3.1          At end of phrase                                       

                                1.3.1.1             Imperfective                       
                                                    form                               

                 1.3.2          Consistency in sg.                                     
                                and pl. forms                                          

                 1.3.3          Consistency in                                         
                                verb forms                                             

                                                                                       

    1.4          Alternations                                                          

                 1.4.1          Distribution of                                        
                                <e> and <â>                                            

                                1.4.1.1             <iâ> and <â>                       

                                1.4.1.2             <-iâêu> vs.                        
                                                    <-iaêu>                            

                 1.4.2          Distribution of                                        
                                <o> and <ô>                                            

                 1.4.3          <ôå> <âå> and <aå>                                     

                                                                                       

    1.5          /«/ - <i>                                                             

                 1.5.1          Insertion of <i>                                       
                                after consonants                                       

                                1.5.1.1             After /n/, /m/                     

                                1.5.1.2             After /l/                          

                                1.5.1.3             After /r/                          

                                1.5.1.4             After /Ä/                          

                                1.5.1.5             After /b/                          

                                1.5.1.6             After /h/                          

                                                                                       

    1.6          /«/ - <u>                                                             

                                                                                       

    1.7          /u/ vs. /o/                                                           

                                                                                       

    1.8          Nominalizer                                                           
                 /bu/ - /bo/                                                           
                 in compounds                                                          

                                                                                       

    1.9          Ideophones                                                            

                                                                                       

2.  Consonants                                                                         

    2.1          Assimilation                                                          

                 2.1.1          Nasalization (/n/)                                     
                                before pron. /ya/                                      

                 2.1.2          /-åa/ vs. /-åga/                                       
                                as nominal                                             
                                suffixes                                               

                 2.1.3          Labialization                                          
                                before /p/, /b/,                                       
                                /m/                                                    

                                2.1.3.1             Pronouns                           

                                2.1.3.2             Infinitive                         
                                                    prefix                             

                                2.1.3.3             Word-internal                      

                 2.1.4          Velarization                                           
                                before /k/, /g/,                                       
                                /N/, /kp/, /gb/,                                       
                                /Nm/                                                   

                                2.1.4.1             Pronouns                           

                                2.1.4.2             Infinitive                         
                                                    prefix                             

                                2.1.4.3             Word-internal                      

                 2.1.5          Palatalization of                                      
                                nasal consonants                                       

                                2.1.5.1             Pronouns                           

                                2.1.5.2             Infinitive                         
                                                    prefix                             

                                2.1.5.3             Word-internal                      

                                                                                       

    2.2          Clusters                                                              

                 2.2.1          /l/ + /n/                                              

                 2.2.2          Initial clusters                                       

                                                                                       

    2.3          The status of                                                         
                 consonants in                                                         
                 the syllable                                                          

                 2.3.1          Which consonants                                       
                                can be                                                 
                                syllable-final?                                        

                 2.3.2          Which consonants                                       
                                can be word-final?                                     

                                                                                       

    2.4          /z/ and [Z]                                                           

                                                                                       

    2.5          /s/ and [S]                                                           
                 (<sh>)                                                                

                                                                                       

    2.6          Distribution                                                          
                 of <g> and                                                            
                 <ê>                                                                   

    2.7          Ideophones                                                            

                                                                                       

3.  Separate                                                                           
    writing                                                                            

    3.1          Compounds                                                             

                 3.1.1          Nouns + nouns                                          

                 3.1.2          Nouns + adjectives                                                                                                                                              

                 3.1.3          Nouns +                                                
                                quantifying                                            
                                pronouns /so/,                                         
                                /shEli/, ...                                           

                 3.1.4          /zaÄa/                                                 

                                                                                       

    3.2          Imperatives                                                           

                                                                                       

    3.3          Pronouns                                                              

                 3.3.1          Distinction of                                         
                                emph. plural pron.                                     
                                from pron. +                                           
                                future marker /ni/                                     

                                                                                       

    3.4          Preverbal                                                             
                 elements                                                              

                                                                                       

    3.5          Postverbal                                                            
                 elements                                                              

                 3.5.1          Direction marker                                       
                                /na/                                                   

                 3.5.2          Verbal marker /mi/                                     

                 3.5.3          Aspect marker                                          
                                /-di/ or /-ri/,                                        
                                /-da/ or /-ra/,                                        
                                /-ya/, /-gi/                                           

                 3.5.4          Object marker /la/                                     

                                3.5.4.1             After /-di/ or                     
                                                    /-ri/                              

                                3.5.4.2             Directly after                     
                                                    verbs                              

                 3.5.5          Discontinued forms                                     

                                                                                       

    3.6          Location                                                              
                 marker /ni/                                                           

                                                                                       

    3.7          Reduplications                                                        

                 3.7.1          Verbs                                                  

                 3.7.2          Adverbs                                                

                 3.7.3          Other categories                                       

                 3.7.4          Elements between                                       
                                duplicated words                                       

                                                                                       

    3.8          Interrogative                                                         
                 <bô>                                                                  

                                                                                       

    3.9          Plural marker                                                         
                 /nima/                                                                

                                                                                       

    3.10         Derivations                                                           

                 3.10.1         Sex indicators                                         
                                <-lôêu, -nyaå,                                         
                                -laa, -saa,                                            
                                -dibga>                                                

                                                                                       

    3.11         /-kam/                                                                

                 3.11.1         After nouns                                            

                 3.11.2         After pronouns                                         

                                                                                       

    3.12         Quantifiers                                                           
                 and numerals                                                          
                 after nouns                                                           

                                                                                       

    3.13         Intensifiers                                                          
                 after verbs                                                           

                                                                                       

4.  Punctuation                                                                        
    and Capital                                                                        
    letters                                                                            

    4.1          Comma                                                                 

                 4.1.1          With                                                   
                                subordinative/quota                                    
                                tive /ni/                                              

                 4.1.2          With direct speech                                     

                                                                                       

    4.2          Capital                                                               
                 letters                                                               

                 4.2.1          Names                                                  

                                4.2.1.1             Persons                            

                                4.2.1.2             Places                             

                                4.2.1.3             Deities                            

                                4.2.1.4             Titles                             

                                                                                       

    4.3          Hyphen                                                                

                 4.3.1          Between /n-/ and                                       
                                verbs                                                  

                 4.3.2          Titles                                                 

                 4.3.3          <nti> vs. <n-ti>                                       

                 4.3.4          Possessive /da-/ +                                     
                                vowel                                                  

                 4.3.5          Numerals                                               

                 4.3.6          Deictic verbs                                          
                                <m-bala> vs.                                           
                                <mbala>                                                

                                                                                       

    4.4          Apostrophe                                                            

                                                                                       

5.  Loans                                                                              

    5.1          Vowels                                                                

                 5.1.1          Final /e/                                              

                 5.1.2          Words in <ia> /                                        
                                <iya>                                                  

                 5.1.3          Final /a/                                              

                                                                                       

    5.2          Consonants                                                            

                 5.2.1          <s> vs. <sh>                                           

                                                                                       

    5.3          Adaptation of                                                         
                 orthographic                                                          
                 regularities                                                          
                 for loans                                                             

                 5.3.1          Consonant clusters                                     

                 5.3.2          Diphthongs